video ambiguity

ambiguity

Hello readers back again for my blog, for this time I will explain for you abot ambiguity so enjoy with read my blog and then I hope you gime some coment or suggestion for my blog to bebetter.

Ambiguity

ambiguity example images

 Do you know about ambiguity? See my picture

 For my picture you can get definition about ambiguty yap……

Ambiguity is A word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning. (Kent Bach, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ambiguity)

In semantic ambiguity is sentence word why ambiguity is sentence word you can see my example :

"I haven't slept for ten days,"

semantic ambiguity rests on the interpretation of individual words; in this case, "for." In this statement, "for" can mean—loosely—either "for a duration of" or "in the last."

Consider some other examples:

"Our mothers bore us."

"There was not a single man at the party."

"Children make nutritious snacks."

In these examples, the words "bore," "single," and "make" are ambiguous. In the first example, we could either be asserting how tiresome our mothers are or merely acknowledging that it was they who did bear us in their womb at one point. In the second, we could either be referring to a lack of bachelors at the party or a lack of men altogether. In the last, we could be either commending children for their nutritious-snack-making skills or—more gravely—modestly proposing their nutritional value.

What's more, words' meanings can change over time. Consider, in light of the dawn of Facebook, this statement:

"I liked your picture."

In a simpler time, this would be rather straightforward, but the internet has deftly redefined "like" in recent years, bestowing upon it a second meaning. A meaning such that one could actually "like" a picture that one hates with every fiber of his or her being. Just by clicking "like." Such is the evolution of language.

TYPES OF AMBIGUITY

       

      Ambiguity consist of  two types of ambiguity: lexical and syntactic or structural. Lets see for my explain:

There are two types of ambiguity, lexical and structural. Lexical ambiguity is by far the more common. Everyday examples include nouns like 'chip', 'pen' and 'suit', verbs like 'call', 'draw' and 'run', and adjectives like 'deep', 'dry' and 'hard'. There are various tests for ambiguity. One test is having two unrelated antonyms, as with 'hard', which has both 'soft' and 'easy' as opposites. Another is the conjunction reduction test. Consider the sentence, 'The tailor pressed one suit in his shop and one in the municipal court'. Evidence that the word 'suit' (not to mention 'press') is ambiguous is provided by the anomaly of the 'crossed interpretation' of the sentence, on which 'suit' is used to refer to an article of clothing and 'one' to a legal action.

The above examples of ambiguity are each a case of one word with more than one meaning. However, it is not always clear when we have only one word. The verb 'desert' and the noun 'dessert', which sound the same but are spelled differently, count as distinct words (they are homonyms). So do the noun 'bear' and the verb 'bear', even though they not only sound the same but are spelled the same. These examples may be clear cases of homonymy, but what about the noun 'respect' and the verb 'respect' or the preposition 'over' and the adjective 'over'? Are the members of these pairs homonyms or different forms of the same word? There is no general consensus on how to draw the line between cases of one ambiguous word and cases of two homonyous words. Perhaps the difference is ultimately arbitrary.

For example, the cognitive sense of Lexical semantics has the task of identifying and characterizing such systematic phemena. It is also concerned to explain the rich and subtle semantic behavior of common and highly flexible words like the verbs 'do' and 'put' and the prepositions 'at', 'in' and 'to'. Each of these words has uses which are so numerous yet so closely related that they are often described as 'polysemous' rather than ambiguous.

Structural ambiguity occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one underlying structure, such as the phrases 'Tibetan history teacher', 'a student of high moral principles' and 'short men and women', and the sentences 'The girl hit the boy with a book' and 'Visiting relatives can be boring'. These ambiguities are said to be structural because each such phrase can be represented in two structurally different ways, e.g., '[Tibetan history] teacher' and 'Tibetan [history teacher]'. Indeed, the existence of such ambiguities provides strong evidence for a level of underlying syntactic structure (see SYNTAX). Consider the structurally ambiguous sentence, 'The chicken is ready to eat', which could be used to describe either a hungry chicken or a broiled chicken. It is arguable that the operative reading depends on whether or not the implicit subject of the infinitive clause 'to eat' is tied anaphorically to the subject ('the chicken') of the main clause.

     Just it for my explain about ambiguity and see you for next topic. Thanks abuch my blogers

references :  http://www.askgrammaticus.com/barbaric/semantic.php

                    http://online.sfsu.edu/kbach/ambguity.html

                    http://www.diplomacy.edu/language/ambiguity

denotation,conotation and immplication

hello guys back again to see my blog so enjoy with read my blog and i hope suggestion and comment thanks :)

Denotation, Connotation, Immplication

Denotation and connotation

The terms, denotation and connotation, are used to convey and distinguish between two different kinds of meanings or extensions of a word. A denotation is the strict, literal, definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. The connotation of a word or term adds elements of emotion, attitude, or color. The meaning or use of denotation and connotation depends partly on the field of study.

The meaning of denotation and connotation

• In media-studies terminology, denotation is the first level of analysis: What the audience can visually see on a page. Denotation often refers to something literal, and avoids being a metaphor. Here it is usually coupled with connotation, which is the second level of analysis, being what the denotation represents.

• In logic, linguistics, and semiotics, a denotation of a word or phrase is a part of its meaning; however, several parts of meaning may take this name, depending on the contrast being drawn:
• Denotation and connotation are either
• in basic semantics and literary theory, the literal and figurative meanings of a word, or,
• in philosophy, logic and parts of linguistics, the extension and intension of a word

• Denotation can be synonymous with reference, and connotation with sense, in the sense and reference distinction in philosophy of language.

• In Computer science, denotational semantics is contrasted with operational semantics.

• In Semiotics, denotation also has its own meaning.

In logic and semantics, denotational always attracts the extension, meaning "in the pair," but the other element genuinely varies.
The distinction between connotation and denotation corresponds roughly to Gottlob Frege's ground-breaking and much-studied distinction between Sinn (sense) and Bedeutung (reference).
Bertrand Russell, in 1905, published a seminal article on the topic of denotation, entitled "On Denoting."
Denotation often links with symbolism, as the denotation of a particular media text often represents something further; a hidden meaning (or an enigma code) is often hidden in a media text.

Examples

In order to understand fully the difference between denotation and connotation in media studies and semiotics, it is helpful to examine some examples:

The denotation of this example is a red rose with a green stem. The connotation is that is a symbol of passion and love—this is what the rose represents.

The denotation is a brown cross. The connotation is a symbol of religion, according to the media connotation. To be more specific, this is a symbol of Christianity.

The denotation is a representation of a cartoon heart. The connotation is a symbol of love and affection, not in the way of a rose, but a symbol of true love.

Definition of Connotation

A connotation is a subjective cultural and/or emotional coloration in addition to the explicit or denotative meaning of any specific word or phrase in a language.

Usage

Within contemporary society, connotation branches into a culmination of different meanings. These could include the contrast of a word or phrase with its primary, literal meaning (known as a denotation), with what that word or phrase specifically denotes. The connotation essentially relates to how anything may be associated with a word or phrase, for example, an implied value judgment or feelings.

• A stubborn person may be described as being either "strong-willed" or "pig-headed." Although these have the same literal meaning (that is, stubborn), strong-willed connotes admiration for someone's convictions, while pig-headed connotes frustration in dealing with someone. Likewise, "used car" and "previously owned car" have the same literal meaning, but many dealerships prefer the latter, since it is thought to have fewer negative connotations.
• It is often useful to avoid words with strong connotations (especially disparaging ones) when striving to achieve a neutral point of view. A desire for more positive connotations, or fewer negative ones, is one of the main reasons for using euphemisms. (Although, not all theories of linguistic meaning honor the distinction between literal meaning and connotation).

Logic

In logic and in some branches of semantics, connotation is more or less synonymous with intension. Connotation is often contrasted with denotation, which is more or less synonymous with extension. A word's extension is the collection of things it refers to; its intension is what it implies about the things it is used to refer to. So, the denotation or extension of "dog" is just the collection of all the dogs that exist. The connotation or intension of "dog" is (something like) "four-legged canine carnivore." Alternatively, the connotation of the word may be thought of as the set of all its possible referents (as opposed to merely the actual ones). So saying, "You are a dog," would imply that the subject was ugly or aggressive rather than a literal canine.

Implication

Implication or entailment is used in propositional logic and predicate logic to describe a relationship between two sentences or sets of sentences, in which one sentence or set of sentences is said to "lead to" or "imply" or "entail" the other sentence or set of sentences, and the other is said to "follow from" or be "derived from" or be "entailed by" or be "implied by" the former.

Refferences : http://juliaramadani.blogspot.co.id/2016/03/denotation-and-connotation-terms.html

Euphemism

     Hello readers, for the next topic i will explain about euphemism, so lets go for see my topic euphenism!!

          

         Euphenism

Definition of euphenisim

What is Euphemism?

A Euphemism is a polite inoffensive expression words or phrases replaced for one considered offensive or hurtful that contrarily might be considered bitter, blunt or unpleasant to hear. In short, the term euphemism refers to courteous, unintended expressions which is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression that replace words and phrases considered harsh and disrespectful or which suggest something unpleasant. When the aim is not to offend or hurt someone with honest intentions. 

Possibly there is no other word in English for which there are more euphemisms than for the verb “to die.” When someone dies, we say he passed away, passed on or simply passed. Or he is in a better place now, gone on to his heavenly reward or as the doctor may have said just as the patient breathed his last breath. “She expired.”

Lets consider a few more Examples:

• Collateral damage instead of accidental deaths
• Use the rest room instead of go to the bathroom
• Between jobs instead of unemployed
• Domestic engineer instead of maid

  Types of Euphemisms

  * To Soften an Expression - Some euphemisms are used to make a blunt or obnoxious truth seem less hard.
  Examples:
• Passed away instead of died
• Differently-abled instead of handicapped or disabled
• Relocation center instead of prison camp
• Letting someone go instead of firing someone
• On the streets instead of homeless

* Euphemisms to be Polite - Some euphemisms are used to take the place of words or phrases one might not want to say in polite circle.
Examples:

• Adult beverages instead of beer or liquor
• Big-boned instead of heavy or overweight
• Vertically-challenged instead of short
• Economical with the truth instead of liar
• Between jobs instead of unemployed

* Euphemisms to be Impolite - euphemisms are intentionally a callous or insensitive way of saying something. These euphemisms are usually used when being sarcastic or trying to make light of a serious subject or make it seem less serious.
Example:

• Bit the dust instead of died
• Blow chunks instead of vomited
• Bit the farm instead of died                                                                                                                                                              Euphemism in sentences:
• He is always tired and emotional (drunk). He is a special child (disabled or retarded).
• You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).
• Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
• We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
• The individual was accused of appropriating funds.
• Joey isn’t broke, he is having temporary negative cash flow.
• Sam isn't buying a used car, he is purchasing a pre-enjoyed or pre-loved vehicle.
• Dian's supervisor laid him off because he was unmotivated.
• Politicians don't commit crimes, they 'make mistakes.'
• I don't care if you keep smoking, you'll be the one pushing up the daisies at the age of 40, not me!
• Putting stray dogs to sleep is the most humane thing to do.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Oke thanks for read my blog . so i hope you can critic and suggestions. Thanks abunch :)                                                                                                                                                                                              Refferences :    http://www.dailywritingtips.com/7-types-of-euphemism/                                                                      http://english.tutorvista.com/literary-response/euphemism.html

translation procedure

Translation Procedures

Definition of translation

According to Brislin (1976: 1) translation is a general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the language is in written or oral form, whether the languages have established orthographies or not; or whether one or both languages is based on signs, as with signs of the deaf.

Another expert, Wilss (1982: 3), states that translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written source language text (SLT) into an optimally equivalent target language text (TLT), and which requires the syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the source text. Syntactic understanding is related to style and meaning. Understanding of semantics is meaning related activity. Finally, pragmatic understanding is related to the message or implication of a sentence. This definition does not states what is transferred. Rather, it states the requirement of the process.

Nida and Taber (1982: 12) see translating as a process of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In other words, translation is a transfer of meaning, message, and style from one SLT to the TLT. In the order of priority, style is put the last. Here the things to reproduce (transfer) is stated, message.

Newmark (1991: 27) defines the act of translating very briefly. It is the act of transferring meaning of a stretch or a unit of language, the whole or a part, from one language to another. (The discussion on meaning can be seen at sub-point F. Meaning, Message, and Style.)

About definition by expert so Traslation by me is study that describes the process of literal renderinf meaning while adhering to form emphasis on general accuracy.

Traslation Procedures

            Translation Procedure by Expert

Gallagher (1996) : Translation procedures is technical devices used to transfer meaning of atext in one language into a text in another language (p.31). Type of procedure text by Gallagher

-           Adding is structural or lexical elements to those present in SL or substracting from them

-           Eliminating is elements that are obligatory in the SL but unnecessary in the TL or with no counterpart in TL.

-           Adapting the content of the message so that the TL text will ass close as possible to the content of the SL text and create a similar impact.

By Mailhac, J.P(2004) : A procedure is thus a tool to be exploited in the broader context of astrategy in order to solve a translation problem. Types  lexical and syntactic procedures

Graedler (2000:3) puts forth some procedures of translating CSCs:

1. Making up a new word.
2. Explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it.
3. Preserving the SL term intact.
4. Opting for a word in the TL which seems similar to or has the same "relevance" as the SL term.

Defining culture-bound terms (CBTs) as the terms which "refer to concepts, institutions and personnel which are specific to the SL culture" (p.2), Harvey (2000:2-6) puts forward the following four major techniques for translating CBTs:

1. Functional Equivalence: It means using a referent in the TL culture whose function is similar to that of the source language (SL) referent. As Harvey (2000:2) writes, authors are divided over the merits of this technique: Weston (1991:23) describes it as "the ideal method of translation," while Sarcevic (1985:131) asserts that it is "misleading and should be avoided."
2. Formal Equivalence or 'linguistic equivalence': It means a 'word-for-word' translation.
3. Transcription or 'borrowing' (i.e. reproducing or, where necessary, transliterating the original term): It stands at the far end of SL-oriented strategies. If the term is formally transparent or is explained in the context, it may be used alone. In other cases, particularly where no knowledge of the SL by the reader is presumed, transcription is accompanied by an explanation or a translator's note.
4. Descriptive or self-explanatory translation: It uses generic terms (not CBTs) to convey the meaning. It is appropriate in a wide variety of contexts where formal equivalence is considered insufficiently clear. In a text aimed at a specialized reader, it can be helpful to add the original SL term to avoid ambiguity.

The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988b) proposes:

• Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000:5) named "transcription."
• Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL. (Newmark, 1988b:82)
• Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. however, "they are not accurate" (Newmark, 1988b:83)
• Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word. (Newmark, 1988b:83)
• Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words. (Newmark, 1988b:83)
• Componential analysis: it means "comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components." (Newmark, 1988b:114)
• Synonymy: it is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy. (Newmark, 1988b:84)
• Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation. (Newmark, 1988b:84)
• Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth. (Newmark, 1988b:86)
• Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective. (Newmark, 1988b:88)
• Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89)
• Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part. (Newmark, 1988b:90)
• Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained. Here the explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent. (Newmark, 1988b:91)
• Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures. (Newmark, 1988b:91)
• Notes: notes are additional information in a translation. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

Notes can appear in the form of 'footnotes.' Although some stylists consider a translation sprinkled with footnotes terrible with regard to appearance, nonetheless, their use can assist the TT readers to make better judgments of the ST contents. Nida (1964:237-39) advocates the use of footnotes to fulfill at least the two following functions: (i) to provide supplementary information, and (ii) to call attention to the original's discrepancies.

A really troublesome area in the field of translation appears to be the occurrence of allusions, which seem to be culture-specific portions of a SL. All kinds of allusions, especially cultural and historical allusions, bestow a specific density on the original language and need to be explicated in the translation to bring forth the richness of the SL text for the TL audience.

Appearing abundantly in literary translations, allusions, as Albakry (2004:3) points out, "are part of the prior cultural knowledge taken for granted by the author writing for a predominantly Moslem Arab [SL] audience. To give the closest approximation of the source language, therefore, it was necessary to opt for 'glossing' or using explanatory footnotes." However, somewhere else he claims that, "footnotes ... can be rather intrusive, and therefore, their uses were minimized as much as possible" (Albakry, 2004:4).

By Nida (1964) :

technical procedures :

-          Analysis of the source and target language

-          Atrougth study of the source language text before making attempts translation

-          Making judgements of the semantic and syntactic approximations (pp.241-4)

Organization Procedure

-          Constant reevaluation of the attempt made

-          Constasting it with the existing avalaible translation of the same text done to other translator. And

-          Checking the text’s communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness and studying their reaction(pp.246-47)

For translation procedure by expert we make conclusion, we conclusion are Procedure  is a way of acting or progressing in a course of action,esp.an enstablished method (one sentence,clause,pharse,word).And about the translation procedures is technical devices used to transfer meaning of atext in a languange.transfer is by grammatically, by lexical means, by dirrect reference to extralinguistic situation,and by a combination of the above.

Type of Translation Procedures

Translation theorists have devised various procedures to deal with different types of texts in translation. In addition to word-for-word and sense-for-sense translations, translators may use a variety of procedures which differ according to the contextual aspects of both the ST and the TT. The present article sheds light on the most useful procedures of translation, focusing on the characteristics which distinguish their use.

a.    Transliteration

Transliteration occurs when the translator transcribes the SL characters or sounds in the TL (Bayar, 2007).  This procedure refers to the conversion of foreign letters into the letters of the TL. It is commonly used to deal with nouns that do not have equivalents in the TLT or to preserve the local color of the SLT. Examples of these nouns are /mitodolojya:/ ’ ميتدلوجيا ’, /bibliyografya:/ ’ بيبليوغرافيا ,’ /joRrafiya/ ’ جغرافيا ,’ /ikolojya/ ’ ايكلوجيا ’ and /opira/ ’ أوبيرا ’ from the English words ’methodology,’ ’bibliography,’ ’geography,’ ’ecology’ and ’opera.’ In fact, transliteration is subject of much controversy, for many scholars refuse to consider it as a translation proper because it relies on transcription instead of translation.

b.     Borrowing

Borrowing refers to the case where a word or an expression is taken from the SL and used in the TL, but in a ‘naturalized’ form. That is, it is made to conform to the rules of grammar or pronunciation of the TL. An example of Borrowing is the verb ’mailer,’ which is used in Canadian-French utterance. Here, the French suffix-er is added to the English verb ’mail’ to conform to the French rules of verb-formation (Harding & Riley 1986).

Borrowed words may sometimes have different semantic significations from those of the original language. For instance, the word ‘flirter,’ which refers in French to a sexual foreplay, is used in English to mean behaving towards someone as though one were in love with but without serious intentions. (Bayar 2007).  Borrowing in translation is not always justified by lexical gaps in the TL. It can also be used as a way to preserve the semiotic and cultural aspects of the original word in translation.

c.     Calque

The term ‘calque,’ or ‘Through-Translation’ as Newmark (1988)  called it, refers to the case where the translator imitates in his translation the structure or manner of expression of the ST. Calque may introduce a structure that is stranger from the TL. For instance, ‘champions league,’ ‘week-end’ and ‘iceberg’ are used in French though it does not consist of such English structure ’NP+NP.’ Calque is widely used by translators to deal with names of international organizations. Examples of these names are: European Cultural Convention, Convention culturelle européenne; and study group, group d’étude (Newmark 1988).  

Calque expression concerns the imitation of the manner of expression of the ST in the TT. According to Vinay and Darbelnet, Canadians are accustomed to use the expression ’les compliments de la saison,’ which is an imitation of the English expression ’season greeting,’ (current French: fruit de saison) (cited in Bayar 2007).

d.    Transposition

Transposition, or shift as Catford called it, reflects the grammatical change that occurs in translation from SL to TL. Newmark (1988),  argues that transposition consists of four types of grammatical changes. The first type concerns words’ form and position. For instance, ‘furniture’ is translated as ‘des meubles’ and ‘equipment’ as ‘des équipements.’ Here, it is obvious that the English singular words are changed to plural forms in French. Concerning position change, it refers to the shift that occurs in words order. To clarify this procedure, let’s see the following English/Arabic examples: ’a red car,’ ’ سيارة حمراء ;’ ’a beautiful girl,’ ’ فتاة جميلة .’ Here, we notice that the position of the adjective changes from English to Arabic. This change in position is not random; it rather depends on the TL structure.

The second type of transposition is usually used when the TL does not have the equal grammatical structure of the SL. Here, the translator looks for other options that help conveying the meaning of the ST. For example, the gerund in the English expression ’terrorizing civilians…’ can be translated into French in two different ways:

The subordinate clause: ’si vous terroriser les civils,…’

The verb-noun : ’le terrorisme contre les civils…’

For the third type, Newmark (1988)  defines it as "the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with the natural usage in the TL." Transposition here offers translators a plenty of possible versions. For instance, the SL verb can shift to a TL empty verb plus noun:

J’ai parlé au parlement hier.

I gave a speech in the parliament yesterday.

The SL adverbial phrase becomes an adverb in the TL:

ST: D’une façon cruelle.

TT: Cruelly.

The fourth type occurs when the translator uses a grammatical structure as a way to replace a lexical gap. For the sake of clarification, one of the interesting examples given by Newmark (1988)  in his Textbook of Translation is used below :

ST: Après sa sortie.

TT: After he’d gone out.

It is obvious here that the grammatical structure of the TLT is used by the translator as a way to compensate for the lexical gap existing in its linguistic system.

In short, transposition concerns the changes of grammatical categories in translation. This procedure is very common among translators, for it offers them a variety of possibilities that help avoiding problems of untranslatability. It should be noted that translators mostly use transposition intuitively while looking for ways to transfer the ST into the TT.

e.     Modulation

Modulation is defined by Gérard Hardin and Gynthia Picot (1990) as "a change in point of view that allows us to express the same phenomenon in a different way."  This semantic-pragmatic procedure that changes the category of thought, the focus, the point of view and the whole conceptualization is distinguished, according to Vinay and Darbelnet (1977: 11, cited in Bayar 2007),into two types: ‘recorded modulation,’ also called ‘standard modulation,’ and free modulation. Recorded modulation is usually used in bilingual dictionaries. It is conventionally established and is considered by many to be a ready-made procedure. An example of this type is given by Bayar (2007):  ’help-line,’ ’ خلية انصات ,’ ’cellule d’écoute.’

Concerning ‘free modulation,’ it is practical in cases where "the TL rejects literal translation" (Vinay and Darbelnet, cited in Bayar 2007).  Vinay and Darbelnet distinguished between eleven categories of free modulation: ‘Negated contrary,’ for instance, is a procedure that relies on changing the value of the ST in translation from negative to positive or vice versa. The examples ’it is difficult,’ ’he never lies’ and ’remember to pay the taxe’ can be translated as ’ce n’est pas facile,’ ’il est honnête’ and ’n’oublier pas de payer la taxe,’ respectively. It is noteworthy here that the accuracy of these examples depends on the context and that modulation becomes compulsory when there is a lexical gap in the target language (Newmark 1988).

Another category of modulation is ’part of the whole.’ ’La fille aimée de l’Eglise,’ for instance, stands for ’France’ (Newmark 1988)  and ’ اليد العاملة ’ stands for ’workers.’

Free modulation also consists of other procedures such as abstract for concrete, cause for effect, space for time. Nevertheless, impersonal or active for passive is still the most useful procedure in translation. The following translation gives an example of active for passive modulation:

He is said to be serious.

On dit qu’il est sérieux.

In sum, modulation occurs when there is a change of perspective accompanied by a lexical change in the TL. This procedure should better be avoided unless it is necessary for the naturalness of the translation.

f.      Reduction and expansion

These two procedures are usually used in poor written texts and lead to a change in lexical and stylistic aspects. Expansion refers to the case where the translator exceeds the number of words of the SLT in translation, as the following example shows:

 ST: Homme noir TT: Dark skinned man.

This example shows a shift from n+adj in French to adj+ptp (compound adj) +noun. Expansion procedure also occurs when the translator tries to shift from the implicit to the explicit. For instance, ’the child cries for the game’ should not be translated as ’l’enfant pleure pour le jeux,’ since the term ’pour’ does not convey the right meaning and may mislead the reader. The translator here should look for another explicit meaning of the item ’pour’ which is ’pour avoir (in order to get), as in ’l’enfant pleure pour avoir le jeux.’

In reduction procedure, the translator is more likely to reduce the number of elements that form the SLT. This procedure should respect the principle of relevance. That is, the translator ought to make sure that no crucial information is omitted in the translation. An example of reduction in translation is ’sciences politiques:’ ’politics.’ Here, the SL adjective plus noun becomes a general noun (politics) in the TL.

g.    Adaptation

In adaptation, the translator changes the content and form of the ST in a way that conforms to the rules of the target language and culture. In general, this procedure is used to deal with culturally-bound words or expressions, metaphors and images in translation. Monia Bayar (2007) argues that adaptation is based on three main procedures: cultural substitution, paraphrase and omission.

Cultural substitution refers to the case where the translator uses equivalent words that are ready-made in the TL and serve the same goal as those of the SL. In other words, the translator substitutes cultural words of the SL by cultural words of the TL. An example of cultural substitution is used in the translation of the expressions below:

Tel père, tel fils : هذا الشبل من ذاك الأسد .

She is innocent as an egg : elle est innocente comme un agneau.

The translator in the above examples substitutes the STs by expressions which are culturally specific in the TL. In the last example, for instance, he uses the term ‘agneau’ as a cultural equivalent for the word ‘egg,’ which also connotes imbecility, as in the example "ne fait pas l’oeuf:" "ne fait pas l’imbécile" (Hardin & Picot 1990).Yet, if the translator cannot find a cultural expression to substitute the SL expression, he may resort to paraphrase.

The procedure of paraphrase is used to surpass all cultural barriers that the ST presents for the translator. It is based on explanations, additions and changes in words’ order. For instance, the English metaphor "he is a ship without compass" has no cultural equivalent in Arabic. Thus, the saying could be translated as " انه يعيش في عالم من الضياع لا موجها له فيه ". Actually, paraphrase is not only used in culturally-bound texts, but also in poor written and anonymous texts which include omissions (Newmark, 1988).

One of the drawbacks of paraphrase is infidelity to the ST. The translator should not overuse this procedure unless necessary, otherwise his translation will be judged as different from the original.

Omission means the deletion of a word or words from the SLT while translating. This procedure is used to deal with the cultural disparity existing between the SL and the TL. In fact, translation by omission is very common in subtitling. Translators usually omit vulgar words that do not have equivalents in the TT, or that may not be accepted by the receptor. Arab translators, for instance, omit English taboos while translating films into Arabic for the sake of respecting Arab receptors, who may not tolerate their use.

In short, adaptation is an important procedure of translation. It enhances the readability of the TT and eases the receptor’s understanding of the ST’s ideas, images, metaphors and culture through his own language and culture. Cultural substitution, paraphrase and omission offer various possibilities for translators to deal with culturally-bound texts.

h.    Additions, notes and glosses

These procedures are used by translators to give information about culturally-bound words or technical words that are related to a specific domain. They may occupy various places within the text. They can be used inside the text, and here they should be enclosed by round or square brackets, except in case these brackets are used as parts of the SLT. They can also be used as notes in the bottom of the page, or at the end of the chapter, unless the chapter is too long. Further, additional information can be written as glosses at the end of the book, with the help of number references. However, this procedure is less favored by translators because it can be exhausting for the reader to move to the end of the translated book every time he finds a cultural or technical word. Finally, the use of these procedures depends on the target reader and the degree of the gap existing between his language and the SLT. It is recommended that these procedures should be preceded by a short introduction where the translator discusses the difficulty of the author’s terms and his ways and degrees of assistance in transferring their meanings.

In summary, the present article provides an overview of the main procedures used by translators to deal with different types of texts and to avoid issues of untranslatability. It shows that each procedure has its own characteristics and purposes in translation. Translators may restrict themselves to one procedure, or use two, three or even four procedures in translation. This technique is referred to as couplets, triplets and quadruplets.

Conclusion

Although some stylists consider translation "sprinkled with footnotes" undesirable, their uses can assist the TT readers to make better judgment of the ST contents. In general, it seems that the procedures 'functional equivalent' and 'notes' would have a higher potential for conveying the concepts underlying the CSCs embedded in a text; moreover, it can be claimed that a combination of these strategies would result in a more accurate understanding of the CSCs than other procedures.

 For an acceptable translation to produce the same (or at least similar) effects on the TT readers as those created by the original work on its readers. This paper may show that a translator does not appear to be successful in his challenging task of efficiently rendering the CSCs and PNs when he sacrifices, or at least minimizes, the effect of allusions in favor of preserving graphical or lexical forms of source language PNs. In other words, a competent translator is wll-advised not to deprive the TL reader of enjoying, or even recognizing, the allusions either in the name of fidelity or brevity. Procedure  is a way of acting or progressing in a course of action,esp.an enstablished method (one sentence,clause,pharse,word).And about the translation procedures is technical devices used to transfer meaning of atext in a languange.transfer isby grammatically, by lexical means, by dirrect reference to extralinguistic situation,and by a combination of the above.And then  Translators may restrict themselves to one procedure, or use two, three or even four procedures in translation. This technique is referred to as couplets, triplets and quadruplets.  

It can be claimed that the best translation method seem to be the one which allows translator to utilize 'notes.' Furthermore, employing 'notes' in the translation, both as a translation strategy and a translation procedure, seems to be indispensable so that the foreign language readership could benefit from the text as much as the ST readers do.

Refferences :

http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1704.php

http://translationjournal.net/journal/41culture.htm

www.pfri.uniri.hr/~bopri/documents/TRANSLATIONSTRATEGIES_002.pdf